Worldwide Cookbooks

The Consumer Viewpoint

SIMPLE ITALIAN COOKERY

American Woman's Home

Art of Living in Australia

Cooking Eggs

Elegant Art of Dining

Guide to Marketing and Cooking

Italian Recipes

Meal Preparation

School and Home Cooking

Physiology of Taste

Tried and True Recipes

Library of Cookery

Hans Christian Andersen . American Fairy Tales . Grimm's Fairy Tales

Aesop's Fables - Tales with Morals . Mother Goose . Mother Goose in Prose

PART I.





THE ART OF LIVING IN AUSTRALIA




CHAPTER I. THE CLIMATE OF AUSTRALIA.



Australia, forming as it does a vast island continent in the Southern
world, lies to some extent within the tropical range, for the Tropic of
Capricorn traverses its northern part. At present, however, its most
densely populated portion lies just outside the tropics, and it is this
semi-tropical part of Australia with which we have mostly to do. And
apart, too, from the mere fact of Australia being between certain
parallels of latitude, which makes its climate tropical or semi-tropical,
as the case may be, its position is peculiar in that it forms
this enormous ocean-girt continent already described.


One of the most extraordinary circumstances in connection with the
Australian people is, that they have never yet realized their
semi-tropical environment. It would naturally be supposed that a
dominating influence of this kind would have, from the very first,
exercised an irresistible effect on their mode of living. But, on the
contrary, the type of the Australian dwelling-house, the clothing of the
Australian people, and, what is more significant than anything else, their
food habits, prove incontestably that they have never recognised the
semi-tropical character of their climate all over the rest of the world it
will be found that the inhabitants of different regions adapt
themselves to their surroundings. For instance, the Laplander and the
Hindoo live in such a widely different manner, that one can scarcely
believe they belong to the same human family.

It has, however, been reserved for Australia, strange even from the
first, to prove an exception to this universal law. Yes, strange even
from the first! For did not the earliest arrivals find that the seasons
came at the wrong time of the year; that Christmas-tide came with
sunshine, and that the middle of the year was its coolest part? Were
there not found in it curious animals, partly quadruped, partly bird,
and partly reptile? Were there not discovered, also, other animals who
carried their young in a pouch? Moreover, did Dot these first settlers
see that the trees shed their bark, and not their leaves; and that the
stones were on the outside, not the inside, of the cherries?

But even admitting these peculiarities of season, of FAUNA and of flora
it may be asked, How is it that the people of Australia have never
adapted themselves to their climatic surroundings? The answer, or
rather answers, to such an interrogation must largely consist of
matters of opinion. This being the case, therefore, I call do no more
than attempt to give my own explanation of this singular anomaly. It
must be remembered that the one great impetus to colonisation in
Australia was the discovery of gold in 1851. Up till that time
settlement had been proceeding steadily, it is true. Indeed, one may go
80 far as to say that the development of the country was progressing,
although slowly, on safe and natural lines. But the announcement of the
finding of gold, which was continually being corroborated by successive
reports, acted as an electric stimulus throughout the whole civilized
world. As a consequence shipload after shipload of new comers flocked
to Australia, all aflame with the same ardent desire--gold. Amongst
them were certainly many of the picked men of the earth, whose spirit
will leaven the whole of Australasia for all time to come. Yet even at
the present day we still see the influence of this gold period at work,
in the readiness with which men are caught by any plausible mining
prospectus. They have only to be told that a company is being formed to
extract gold out of road metal, and they are ready to believe it, and,
what is more, prepared to put money into it.

But far better than all this eagerness to amass wealth by some
fortunate COUP, would be the natural development of the country.
Agriculture and market-gardening, vine-growing and wine-making, the
deep-sea fisheries and all the other comparatively neglected
opportunities, only await their expansion into vast sources of wealth.
What wonder, then, that a continent with so much that is wanting in
connection with its food life should be living in a manner distinctly
opposed to its climatological necessities! In the case of America there
is a far different history. Settlement began there in a small way at
first, to gradually expand as time went on. There was no sudden event,
with the exception of the short-lived Californian gold rush of 1849-50,
to set men flocking to its shores in countless legions. No, in America
the inland territory has been peopled, steadily and slowly at first,
but in after years by leaps and bounds, so that its development has
been on a perfectly natural basis.

But there must be something even more than this to explain the want of
adaptation to climate shown in Australia, and it is, I think, to be
found in the following. It must be remembered that Australia has been
peopled chiefly by the Anglo-Saxon race. In such a stock the
traditional tendencies are almost ineradicable, and hence it is that
the descendants of the new comers believe as their fathers, did before
them. It's in the blood. For there can be no doubt but that the
Anglo-Saxon thinks there is only one way of living in every part of the
world--no matter whether the climate be tropical, semi-tropical, or
frigid. Those in the old country live in a certain manner, and all the
rest of the globe have every right to follow their example.

These two facts that Australia was peopled in part by the influx which
followed the discovery of gold, and that its inhabitants belong
essentially to the Anglo-Saxon race, have unquestionably exercised a
great influence over our Australian food-habits. But notwithstanding
these powerful underlying factors, there still remains that most
extraordinary circumstance, to which I at first referred, namely, that
the Australian people have never realized their semi-tropical
environment. In order to assign to this latter the prominence it
deserves, it seems desirable to make special inquiry into the
peculiarities of the climate in its different parts. With that object
in view, therefore, I wrote for certain information to the
observatories of the four principal Australian metropolitan centres,
namely, Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, and Brisbane. As has always been
the case, I received the fullest answers to my requests from Mr. H.C.
Russell, Government Astronomer of New South Wales; from Mr. R.L.J.
Ellery, Government Astronomer of Victoria; from Sir Charles Todd,
Government Observer of South Australia; and from Mr. Clement L. Wragge,
Government Meteorologist of Queensland. And it is with a feeling of
considerable indebtedness to these gentlemen that I acknowledge their
uniform kindness. And yet it is important to remember that the annual
temperature, by itself, of any given locality may afford no indication
whatever of its climatic peculiarities. Take for instance the climate
of the North-Eastern portion of the United States. That region is
characterized by intense heat during the summer, and extreme cold in
the winter. In New York, for example, the mean summer temperature
ranges as high as 70.9 degrees, while the mean winter temperature is as
low as 30.1 degrees; yet the mean temperature of the whole year is 53.2
degrees, affording no indication of these extremes. The mean annual
temperature alone, therefore, would be entirely misleading, as it would
give no idea of these alternations of heat and cold. Such being the case,
the actual character of any climate will be far better realized by placing
in juxtaposition the mean annual temperature, the mean temperature of the
hot, and the mean temperature of the cooler months. First of all, then,
I purpose showing the mean annual temperature, and also the mean
temperatures for the hot and cooler months, of the four largest
Australian centres.


TABLE showing the Mean Annual Temperature, and also the Mean Temperatures
for the Hot and Cooler Months, of Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide,
and Brisbane.

Capital.   Mean Annual    Mean Temperature     Mean Temperature
           Temeperature   for the Hot Months   for the Cold Months
Sydney        62.9               70                  58.7
Melbourne     57.5               64.9                53.8
Adelaide      63.1               72.4                58.4
Brisbane      67.74              75.2                64.3


Much will be gained by a comparison of these temperatures of the
Australian capitals with those of some other cities in different parts
of the world. A contrast of this kind will, in my opinion, help to a
truer understanding of the climate of these capitals, than any other.
Accordingly I made a successful application to Mr. H.C. Russell, for
the corresponding temperatures of the following cities: London,
Edinburgh, Dublin; Marseilles, Naples, Messina; New York, San
Francisco, New Orleans; Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras.


TABLE showing the Mean Annual Temperature, as well as the Mean Summer
and Winter Temperatures, in twelve different cities.

City.              Mean Annual Temp.  Mean Summer Temp.  Mean Winter Temp.
UNITED KINGDOM
London                   50.8               62.9              39.5
Edinburgh                47.5               58                38
Dublin                   50                 61.1              40.7
. . . .

SOUTHERN EUROPE
Marseilles (France)      58.3               72.9              45.2
Naples (Italy)           62                 74.4              47.6
Messina (Sicily)         65.8               77.2              55

. . . .

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
New York                 53.2               70.9              30.1
San Francisco            56.2               60                51.6
New Orleans              69.8               82                55.8

. . . .

INDIA
Bombay                   78.8               82.6              73.8
Calcutta                 78.4               83.3              67.8
Madras                   82                 86.4              76.6


It has been said that Australia is practically Southern Europe, and to
a very great extent this is perfectly true. It will be seen, however,
on reference to the preceding tables, that the Australian climate is
more equable than that of Southern Europe, for there is not such a
marked difference between the hot and the cooler months. In the New
England States of North America, as exemplified by New York, there are
intensely hot summers and extremely cold winters--to which fact
attention has already been drawn. And lastly, in India, the thermometer
stands at such a height, winter as well as summer, that we can only be
thankful our lines are cast in more pleasant places.

Having thus compared the summer and winter temperatures of the
Australian capitals with those of other cities in different parts of
the world, it will be advisable to direct our attention to some details
connected with the climate of these capitals, and of the corresponding
colonies generally. Commencing with Sydney we find that the climate is
characterized by the absence of very violent changes of temperature,
owing in great measure to its proximity to the ocean, which in winter
is about 10 degrees warmer than the air. Its summer climate is marked by
the absence of hot winds, which do not come more than three or four times,
and the are short-lived, seldom lasting more than five or six hours.
For a short time in the midsummer of each year, Sydney is visited
regularly by moist sea breezes, which are enervating to many persons.
While these continue the temperature seldom rises to 80 degrees, but there
is so much moisture that they are very oppressive. Otherwise the climate
is one of the most enjoyable in the world. In other parts of New South
Wales towns may be found varying in mean temperature from 45.8 degrees at
Kiandra to 69.1 degrees at Bourke. Speaking generally it is a fact that
for the same mean annual temperature in New South Wales the range between
summer and winter temperature is less than it is in Europe.

The climate of Melbourne is characterized by a low average humidity,
moderate rainfall, and moderate winds, strong gales being of her rare
occurrence. The most marked feature is the summer hot wind. A hot wind
is always a northerly wind, and the highest temperature generally
occurs a little before the win changes to west or south-west. When this
takes place a sudden drop to a comparatively low temperature sometimes
follows within a few minutes. These hot winds, however, are not
frequent, only averaging eight or nine per annum. These characteristics
will apply to all Victoria except the mountain ranges, where all
the climatic elements vary with the altitude.

The climate of Adelaide is certainly healthy, and, with the exception
of the extreme heat occasionally experienced in summer, the weather may
be described as enjoyable. It must be remembered, however, that these
high temperatures are always accompanied by extreme dryness, the wet
bulb thermometer usually reading at such times from 30 to 35 degrees, or
even more, below the temperature of the air. The heat is, therefore, more
bearable than if it was combined with the humid atmosphere. When the
thermometer stands perhaps at something over 100 degrees, the wet bulb
thermometer will show 65 degrees, and it is this which enables persons to
bear the heat of the summer and carry on their usual pursuits with less
inconvenience and discomfort than is felt in tropical and damp
climates, though the temperature may be 15 or 20 degrees lower, but nearly
saturated with aqueous vapour, as at Port Darwin, where during the
rainy season of the north-west monsoon the thermometer may stand at
only 88 degrees, whilst the wet bulb at the same time indicates 86
degrees. Such an atmosphere, it need hardly be said, is far more
enervating than the hot and dry air of the Adelaide plains. The summer,
which may be termed warm and dry, usually extends over, say, five months;
and during the remainder of the year the climate is simply perfect. The
temperature in mid-winter over the Adelaide plains rarely, if ever,
reaches the freezing point, although there may be sharp frosts, and on
still clear nights, so frequently experienced, copious dews. On the
ranges, and on the high lying plains 150 miles north of Adelaide, lower
temperatures are reached, indeed in some years there have been falls of
snow.

The climatic features of Brisbane are, as a mean expression, decidedly
semi-tropical. The months from October to March may be classed as
tropic when vegetation makes luxuriant growth, especially if the
rainfall prove abundant. The rest of the year, from April to September,
is marked by a dry, bracing, "continental" climate, during which the
westerly wind often proves very cold, bleaching, and searching
accompanied by great dryness accumulated during the passage of this
current from southern-central Australia. Many settlers affirm that they
feel the peculiar searching character of the dry cold "westerlies" more
keenly than the more "honest" frost of the old country. Yet vigorous
constitutions thoroughly enjoy the bracing nature of the westerly
weather of winter. Hard ground frosts not unfrequently occur in the
Darling Downs and Maranoa districts, especially during May, June, and
July, in connection with the westerly type of climate; and, moreover,
ice has at times been observed in the water-jugs of bedrooms, &c. As
before intimated, the westerly winds are marked by great dryness, so
that (saturation= 100) a percentage of relative humidity below 33 per
cent. may occur during the prevalence of such phenomena, not only in
Brisbane, but especially in the more western districts above mentioned.
Such conditions are characterized by great diathermancy of atmosphere,
and hence are frequently followed by days of considerable heat. Even in
the tropics, in inland districts, ground frosts are known to have
occurred owing to this extreme diathermancy of the atmosphere far from
the coast, and the consequent attendant factor of active terrestrial
radiation. In coast districts, or that fringe of country bordering the
ocean north from Rockhampton, frost is of very rare occurrence, and the
prevailing winds are between south-east and east-north-east, with a
rainfall far more abundant than that obtaining in other parts of
Queensland. The climate of the country surrounding the southern end of
the Gulf of Carpentaria is very hot and trying from November to March,
but genial thenceforward. It is certainly not unhealthy, and the
fevers suffered from in the northern and gulf districts of Queensland
are largely brought on by reckless or needless exposure.

In addition to the foregoing, which has been obtained from head-quarters,
certain questions were submitted by me as to the climatology
of the different colonies. As it will be seen, these interrogations are
somewhat extensive in their scope, and supply knowledge upon points,
which is not ordinarily met with in my descriptions of Australian
climate. In drafting them everything which had a bearing on health was
included as far as possible, and consequently in a work of this kind
they unquestionably deserve a prominent place. In arranging them I
purpose placing the different replies after each question in the
following order, namely, New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia,
and Queensland. And in the different answers it should be borne in mind
that Mr. H.C. Russell is responsible for New South Wales; Mr. R.L.J.
Ellery for Victoria; Sir Charles Todd for South Australia; and Mr.
Clement L. Wragge for Queensland.

IS IT NOT A FACT THAT THE TEMPERATURE AND BAROMETRIC PRESSURE ARE
EXPOSED TO SUDDEN AND MARKED CHANGES? HAVE YOU KNOWN THE TEMPERATURE TO
FALL, SAY, AS MUCH AS 22 DEGREES IN 15 MINUTES?

New South Wales.--The temperature sometimes changes rapidly in the
summer, coming with a change from a hot wind to a cold southerly,
although the instances are rare. Once in 30 years I have known such a
change to amount to 20 degrees in 15 minutes. Under ordinary circumstances
the change in temperature from hot to cold wind takes several hours to
amount to 20 degrees. The fluctuations of barometric pressure are
moderate, seldom amounting to half an inch in a day, or an inch in a week.
In England, on the other hand, the pressure sometimes varies quickly to
the extent of two inches.

Victoria.--Yes; the temperature much more so than the barometric
pressure; it has fallen from a high temperature to 20 and even 30
degrees sometimes in as many minutes, when a hot north wind has
suddenly changed to a cold southerly one. But such sudden and great
changes occur very seldom, and then only in the hot summer months, and
are known as "the change." On several occasions in the last 30 years it
has fallen from 105 degrees in the shade to 70 degrees and 65 degrees in
the shade in less than an hour.

South Australia.--Yes, in the summer; but, especially as regards
temperature, rarely in the winter. One notable example occurred on
February 9th, 1887, when during a heavy thunder-storm the temperature
fell 25 degrees in 10 or 15 minutes, followed by a rising temperature. In
other instances the fall of temperature has been almost equally rapid.
From this it will be seen that we are subject to large and quick falls
of temperature following extreme heat. The approach of hot weather is
usually gradual, and the fall abrupt. The barometer has been known to
show a rise of 6/10 of an inch in 24 hours; this, however, is
exceptional.

Queensland.--There is no record of a fall of as much as 22 degrees in 15
minutes. But, on the other hand, a rise of 30 degrees in three hours is a
common feature over the Darling Downs after sunrise. Owing to the
diathermancy of the atmosphere already referred to, it is a fact,
nevertheless, that in the "continental" or inland districts of
Southern Queensland the temperature in winter is subject to sudden and
marked changes. Barometric pressure, owing to the comparatively low
latitude, is not exposed to sudden and marked changes, except during
hurricane conditions, which usually affect the central coast-line in
February and March.

AS A COROLLARY TO THE PRECEDING, WOULD YOU SAY THAT THE CLIMATE
IS MARKED BY GREAT VARIABILITY?

New South Wales.--No; just the opposite. Indeed, as regards Sydney
itself. there are few cities in which so much uniformity of temperature
and slow changes, are to be found. The cause of any great change is the
hot wind, and as that seldom comes more than three or four times in the
year, great changes are infrequent. The mean diurnal range in Sydney is
11 1/2  degrees, and taking a series of years it is very unusual for the
range on any day to reach 25 degrees.

Victoria.--No; because these are exceptional phenomena. In the late
Spring and during early summer the climate may be said to be
occasionally subject to sharp and sudden changes, which give it the
character of variability. But the deviations from mean temperature,
except for short periods, are not remarkable.

South Australia.--Yes, in summer; but not in winter.

Queensland.--Certainly not; with the exception of the wide diurnal
range of temperature in winter in the southern "continental" districts,
as at Cambooya and Thargomindah. The changes are, according to my
knowledge, far more sudden and marked in the southern colonies (as
during a "shift" from N.E. by W., to S.W. for instance, at Melbourne,
and especially at Adelaide) than in Queensland and its coastal
districts.

WITH REGARD TO SUSTAINED, PROLONGED, OR CONTINUED HIGH TEMPERATURES
DURING THE SUMMER MONTHS, FOR HOW MANY DAYS HAVE YOU KNOWN THE
TEMPERATURE REMAIN CONTINUOUSLY AT A HIGH LEVEL? THIS IS A VERY
IMPORTANT QUESTION, AS IT CONCERNS INFANTILE MORTALITY IN NO SMALL
DEGREE; I SHALL BE GRATEFUL FOR YOUR EXPERIENCE?

New South Wales.--Much depends upon what temperature is deemed a "high
level." If we assume that 90 degrees and upwards is a high level, then
such periods are very rare in Sydney; in fact during the past 24 years
there have only been three. In 1868 there were three consecutive hot
days of which the mean temperature was 91.8 degrees; in 1870 a period of
four days with a mean temperature of 91.3 degrees; and in 1874 a period of
four days with a mean temperature of 90.2 degrees. Since then, although
sometimes near it, the temperature has never been for three days over 90
degrees. Taking a lower level, we have one period of nine days in 1870,
the longest on record, during which the mean temperature was 82.6 degrees.
It must, however, be distinctly understood that what is here taken is not
the mean temperature of each 24 hours, but the highest temperature
reached during the day, and which would not as a rule last more than
three or four hours, if so much. If the mean temperature of the day
were taken these temperatures, as given, would have to be reduced at
least 10 per cent.

Victoria.--It is very unusual to have a hot period lasting more than
three days; when it does happen it is generally in February or March.
In the majority of cases high temperatures (over 90 degrees) do not last
more than one or two days. The exceptions generally occur in February or
March, and have sometimes extended to four or five days hot weather,
with a temperature of over 80 degrees with a maximum of about 90 degrees,
has on a few occasions during the last 30 years extended from five to ten
days; and in 1890, a memorable instance, to 12 days (the only case for 37
years).

South Australia.--The longest stretch of continuous heat noted was in
January and February 1857. On January 28th, 29th, and 30th, the
temperature exceeded 100 degrees, and during the whole of February it was
over 90 degrees on 25 days, and above 100 degrees on 12 days, the mean
being 107 degrees. In January 1858 there were 10 consecutive days over 90
degrees, of which eight consecutive days were over 100 degrees. In January
1860 there were in the beginning of the month seven consecutive days,
above 100 degrees (maximum 107.5 degrees). In the middle of the same
month, seven days were over 90 degrees, of which five exceeded 100
degrees, two days reaching 113.7 degrees. These are, however, exceptions
to our usual experience. Although there are several other instances of
great heat, yet the foregoing will suffice to show what we occasionally
suffer without much harm being done.

Queensland.--During the period February 17th to February 23rd, 1891,
the shade temperature at Townsville ranged between 81 degrees and 62
degrees, but at Cairns a range between 82  degrees and 70 degrees is of
frequent occurrence, within at least fortnightly periods.

ANY INFORMATION WITH REGARD TO HUMIDITY OF THE ATMOSPHERE ALSO, WILL BE
OF GREAT VALUE. ALL PHYSICIANS ARE OF OPINION THAT A HIGH TEMPERATURE,
COMBINED WITH MOISTURE, IS VERY IRRITATING TO THE LUNGS OF THOSE
AFFECTED WITH PULMONARY DISEASE.

Before setting forth the different answers in response to this, it will
be desirable to refer briefly to the term "humidity." The humidity of
the atmosphere is defined as the degree of its approach to saturation.
Air completely saturated is represented by 100, and that absolutely
free of vapour by 0. As a matter of fact, however, the latter never
occurs; even in the driest regions of Arabia a humidity of 10 per cent.
is almost unknown. For its estimation the Wet and Dry Bulb thermometers
are employed. These consist of two ordinary thermometers. One has its
bulb exposed so as to register the temperature of the air. The bulb of
the other is covered with muslin; this latter material being kept wet
through its connection with a cotton wick dipping into a vessel of
water. The water ascends from this vessel by capillary attraction,
spreads over the muslin, and evaporates quickly or slowly,
according to the dryness or moistness of the atmosphere. Thus when the
air is driest the difference between the two thermometers will be
greatest, and, on the contrary, when it is completely saturated with
moisture the two readings will be almost identical.

New South Wales.--A considerable part of the colony, forming the
western plains, is subject to great heat, caused, no doubt, by the
sun's great power on treeless plains, and the almost total absence of
cooling winds; yet, although in summer the temperature here frequently
rises over 100 degrees, and sometimes up to 120 degrees, owing to the cold
at night and in winter the mean temperatures are not greater than those of
corresponding latitudes in the northern hemisphere. This region of the
colony is remarkably dry, and stock of all kinds thrive well and are
very free from disease. At Bourke, the driest place in the colony, the
humidity for a long series of years is--in the spring 51 degrees, in the
summer 49 degrees, in the autumn 61 degrees, and in the winter 74 degrees.
At Sydney the humidity in the Spring is 69 degrees, in the summer 70
degrees, in the autumn 79 degrees, and in the winter 79 degrees.

Victoria.--The humidity of the air of Melbourne is low, the average
being 71 per cent. In the summer it falls to 65, and on hot days is
generally very low. The characteristic of our hot weather is that it is
usually extremely dry; the exceptions are very few, and occur in the
late Spring and early autumn during thundery, muggy weather. On the
hottest days, with north winds, the dryness makes the heat much more
endurable, and the humidity frequently falls to between 30 and 40 per
cent.

South Australia.--Attention has already been drawn to the fact that
the hot, dry air met with on the Adelaide plains is far more endurable
than a lower temperature in which the atmosphere is surcharged with
aqueous vapour. A damp atmosphere is a rare thing in South
Australia during the summer, though in March there are at times some
warm and humid days. In the winter the air for the most part is dry,
although the nights are often damp. The Mount Lofty Ranges, close to
Adelaide, afford a cool retreat; they have a very large rainfall, in
some years over 50 inches. The climate at Mount Gambier, in the
south-eastern part of the colony, is cooler and damper; it has also a much
heavier rainfall than the Adelaide plains.

OF WHAT DURATION ARE THE DIFFERENT SEASONS, AND TO WHAT MONTHS WOULD
YOU APPORTION EACH SEASON?

New South Wales and Victoria.--Spring--September, October, November;
Summer--December, January, February; Autumn--March, April, May;
Winter--June, July, August.

South Australia.--Spring--September, October; Summer comprises the
five months from November to March inclusive; Autumn--April, May;
Winter--June, July, August. Practically, in South Australia the year
may be divided into two seasons, namely, Spring, the seven months from
April to October inclusive; and Summer, the five months from November
to March inclusive.

Queensland.--With regard to Southern Queensland, the seasons may be
provisionally apportioned as follows: Spring--August, September,
October; Summer--November, December, January, February, Autumn--
March, April, May; Winter--June, July.

WHAT ARE THE PREVAILING WINDS, AND WHAT PARTICULAR ROLE DO THE HOT
WINDS PLAY?

New South Wales.--A general statement is not sufficient, for the winds
vary much at different places; but taking the colony as a whole, its
prevailing winds come from some point between north-west and
south-west, and hence the dry climate. In Sydney no less than 39.6 per
cent. of the wind comes from this quarter. The winds known as southerly
bursters are generally to be expected from November to the end of
February; they are always attended with strong electrical excitement, a
stream of sparks being sometimes produced for an hour at the
electrometer. The approach of the true burster is indicated by a
peculiar roll of clouds, which, when once seen, cannot be mistaken. It
is just above the South horizon, and extends on either side of it 15
degrees or 20  degrees, and looks as if a thin sheet of cloud were being
rolled up like a scroll by the advancing wind. The change of wind is
sometimes very sudden; it may be fresh N.E. and in ten minutes a gale
from S. Hence vessels not on the look-out are sometimes caught unprepared,
and suffer accordingly. When a southerly wind commences anywhere south of
Sydney it is at once telegraphed to its principal coast towns, and a
signal put up indicating its approach. As to the hot winds, they are so
insignificant in number that it cannot be said they play any particular
ROLE. Their effect is to raise the temperature, because they flow from
the heated interior of Australia; but they do not last long. and for
the majority of people are dry, healthy winds. Indeed, they are by no
means so oppressive as the warm north-east wind, so charged with
moisture, which comes in the summer.

Victoria.--In summer the N. winds blow to the extent of 8 per cent.,
the S.W. winds 24.1 per cent., and the S. winds 201 per cent.
Northerly, or warm-quarter winds, in summer are 20 per cent., and
southerly, or cool-quarter winds, 64 per cent. The northerly winds in
winter, however, are bleak and cold, like easterly winds in England.
The particular ROLE played by the hot wind is to precede a cyclonic
movement, and is always in front of a low pressure area or V-shaped
depression. It is frequently followed by thunderstorms and rain
of short duration. It dries the surface and raises dust storms when
strong. So far as its effects on the people are concerned, it does not
appear to hinder the ordinary occupations of life. Some invalids are
better during its continuance, some worse; but all weakly people feel
some depression after "the change" comes. The aged are generally better
in hot winds, unless they suffer from disease.

South Australia.--As far as the southern regions of the colony are
concerned, we may say, speaking generally, that light winds and calms
are a very distinctive characteristic. The prevailing wind in the
summer is the S.E., varied by sea-breezes during the day. In the winter
there are mostly dry, cold N.E. winds, broken at intervals by westerly
and S.W. gales of moderate strength, squalls, and rain. The best and
heaviest rainfalls are those which set in with the surface winds at
N.E., the rain increasing in intensity as the wind veers to N.W., and
breaking up into showers and squalls as it veers to S.W. In the
interior, north of, say, latitude 30 degrees to about 18 degreess., the
prevailing wind all the year is the S.E. North of latitude 18 degrees to
the north coast the country is well within the influence of the north-nest
monsoon during the summer months, with frequent thunderstorms and heavy
rains; and during, the winter dry S.E. winds prevail.

Queensland.--Eastern Queensland (or rather the Pacific Slope) is very
seldom troubled with hot winds. The hot winds of "continental"
Queensland are always very dry, and are usually accompanied by dust
storms.