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THE GROWING OF THE GRAPE--THE PREPARATION OF THE SOIL.


It is not my purpose to enter fully into the entire subject of
 grape-growing, for that is too extensive to be dealt with here;
nevertheless, there are many points about it of Australian concern, over
which there has been considerable discussion. This shows that our
vignerons, instead of placidly following out old lines, are determined to
find out for themselves the methods which will give the best results. That
such a spirit is in active existence is unquestionably a source of
satisfaction to those who have the welfare of Australian viticulture at
heart, for it is only by a determination to find out the best course to
be pursued in the many points connected with grape-growing, and more
especially with wine-making, that we can hope to reach perfection.

And although we have the climate, and the soil, and everything
in our favour, yet it must be recollected that there are vignerons of
the very highest excellence in the old wine-making countries, and that
it will only be by surpassing them that we can hope to secure the
markets of the world. As I have already said, my own belief is that the
best way of infusing vigour into our wine-making industry is to arouse
public interest in the subject; and with that object in view,
therefore, I shall endeavour to bring forward those matters which are
of Australian viticultural importance.

Even at the outset we come against a disputed point, about which there
has been, and is still, considerable diversity of opinion. It is to
what depth the ground should be cultivated. On the one hand, there are
some who affirm that a shallow depth of 8 or 9 inches, or even of 6
inches, is quite a sufficient penetration of the soil for most land;
but, on the other, there are many who, while conceding the fact that a
superficial cultivation like this may be successful for a few years,
are strongly opinioned that a deeper working is eventually necessary.
More than this, they contend that, even admitting good results were
obtained by simple ploughing, yet they would have been still better
with a deeper working. It would seem, however, that climate has a good
deal to do with the matter. In the hot districts the vine attains a far
greater development than in the cooler parts, and the roots require a
deep soil. And besides this, in the warm regions the wine is naturally
too strong, and the deeper the soil is worked the lighter the wine will
be.

But there is one thing in particular which should not be overlooked,
and it is that the land should be in a state of fine sub-division. One
American writer insists that the ground before planting should be "as
fine as bolted flour." This expression serves very well to show the
importance of a thorough pulverisation of the soil; and the
best results are certainly obtained .where this is energetically
carried out.


THE GROWING OF THE GRAPE--LAYING OUT THE VINEYARD.


The next thing in order is that of laying out the vineyard, in which it
will be desirable to consider what distance apart the vines are to be
planted. This matter of spacing the vines is one about which there is
still considerable disagreement; and the question as to whether they
should be planted near to one another, or far apart, is yet unsettled.
But the truth is no inflexible rule can be laid down, as the climate,
the soil, and the "cepage" all exercise a controlling influence. It
seems to be generally admitted that in the warm districts the vines
should be planted farther apart than in the cooler regions.

In a hot climate the vigour of the plant is increased by the great
amount of light and heat which it receives. The must will be too
strong, therefore, and it is only by planting the vines at a greater
distance apart than usual, and also by pruning very long, that the
resulting wine will be rendered sufficiently light in strength. In a
cooler region, on the other hand, where the vigour of the plant is
less, the crop on each vine must be reduced by short pruning, so as to
increase the percentage of glucose in the must and ensure a good wine.
And where the size of the plant is lessened by this method of pruning,
the vines must be placed closer together in order to make use of all
the available soil. This latter itself has also to be thought of in
this matter of spacing the vines. In a rich soil, where the vigour of
the plant is increased, the vines should be placed farther apart; in a
poor soil, on the contrary, they should be planted closer together.

Mr. Francois de Castella, formerly Expert to the Board of Viticulture,
the author of THE HANDBOOK ON VITICULTURE FOR VICTORIA, and who is now
the proprietor of the Tongala vineyard, in an instructive article on
viticulture in Victoria lays down the following rules with regard to
the spacing of vines:--"THERE IS FOR EACH LOCALITY, WITH THE SAME
CONDITIONS OF SOIL AND CLIMATE, A CERTAIN DISTANCE, WE MAY CALL THE
OPTIMUM, AT WHICH VINES WILL THRIVE BEST; IF THIS DISTANCE BE INCREASED
THEY WILL NOT IMPROVE, AND MAY EVEN DETERIORATE. Unless this be a
distance which cannot conveniently be worked by horse labour, it would
evidently be a waste of land to plant any wider, and would entail the
use of unnecessary labour for its cultivation. It would be just as
foolish to plant vines any closer than this, as it would give
unnecessary pruning, disbudding, tying up, &c.--that is, if the
climate be such that grapes will ripen satisfactorily.

"I have come to the conclusion that in our district (Lilydale, a cool
region) the optimum distance is 4 1/2 by 4 1/2 feet, practically 2,000
vines per acre, at least in the poorer soils; and, after careful
observation, I am of opinion that vines planted any wider will not bear
more fruit. This is, however, rather too close to be conveniently
worked by horse labour. I should, therefore, recommend 5 by 5 feet. But
on the Murray (a warm region) this distance would not suit at all, and
I believe that the vine-growers are right to plant 8 by 8, and even 10
by 10 feet, in that district.

"In conclusion, I would advise every vine-grower starting in a new
district to determine by experiment what is his optimum distance. He
can make a pretty good guess from observations of soil and climate, and
for the rest let him, instead of planting all his vineyard on one
scale, plant different blocks at different distances apart, so that if
he wishes to extend his vineyard later on he may know what is
the most suitable way to do so. By a careful consideration of these and
other points which regulate the growth and development of the vine, and
a practical application of the deductions drawn from them, it is
possible for the intelligent vigneron to obtain from his land a maximum
of return with a minimum of labour, and also to regulate the strength
of his wine so as to suit the requirements of trade, thus making
viticulture one of the most remunerative as well as most attractive
branches of agriculture."

In France, especially in the northern districts, the vines are placed
much closer together than ever they are in Australia, and this means
that only hand labour can be employed. But it has to be remembered that
the scarcity of manual labour with us makes it necessary to arrange the
vineyard with enough width between the plants for a horse. rt is
desirable, however, not to go to the other extreme and space the vines
at too great a distance from each other; indeed, in favour of a closer
planting, the following influencing circumstances should be borne in
mind. In the elevated regions, where the rainfall is ample, the vines
may be planted closer together than on the plains or on the lower
slopes; firstly, because there is no fear as to a sufficiency of water;
and secondly, for the reason that the vines, by being nearer together,
protect one another from the inclement weather. Spring frosts also are
very liable to occur in certain localities; and here again the vines,
by being brought closer together, afford shelter to each other from the
direct rays of the sun, which are particularly injurious when coming on
top of a severe frost.

Then again, although some believe that in dry districts it is better to
give each vine plenty of space, yet there are others who are of opinion
that a closer formation is rather an advantage. And on this account:
that since the roots come in contact with one another, they are
compelled to strike deeper in search of water--just in the very place
it is desirable they should go. In addition to the foregoing, it must
not be forgotten that a dark-coloured soil absorbs more of the sun's
heat than one of lighter colour; just as a dark coat is hotter to wear
than a light-coloured one. For this reason, therefore, it is better for
the plants to be closer together in a dark soil, since the shadow of
the vines will then be over the root-producing areas.

In the SOUTH AUSTRALIA VINEGROWERS' MANUAL, which has been prepared by
Mr. George Sutherland, under instructions from the Government of South
Australia, the author expresses this conviction: That a very large
proportion of the new vineyards of South Australia will be planted
wide, especially in the warmer districts and on the lower rises of the
foothills; but that after all 6 feet may be found the most suitable on
more elevated localities, where we shall have to look for some of the
best wines of the claret and hock type. One leading Californian
authority, according, to Mr. Sutherland, was a great advocate for wide
planting. After an exhaustive inquiry into the matter, however,
throughout the wine-producing countries of Europe, he became quite
converted, and believed in closer planting. Mr. Francois de Castella
also records the fact that in a block of vines at St. Hubert's
(Lilydale, Victoria), every second vine was rooted out on one-half of
the block. After ten years it was found that on the whole the closer
wines had done better than those from which every alternate vine was
rooted out.


THE GROWING OF THE GRAPE--WHETHER TO PLANT CUTTINGS OR ROOTED VINES.


There is another somewhat disputed matter connected with viticulture,
which deserves a little notice; and it is the relative merits
of planting cuttings or rooted vines in the vineyard. The majority of
the witnesses examined by the Royal Commission on Vegetable Products in
Victoria, 1889, admitted that cuttings ultimately produced a better
vine. But, as in some of the preceding points at issue, may it not be
that climate and soil have a great deal to do with the results? Signor
Romeo Bragato, the Expert to the Board of Viticulture in Victoria, in
his HINTS TO INTENDING VINE-GROWERS, recommended cuttings, not only for
cheapness, but because if planted in the vineyard at the first they did
not require removal.

In the course of his advice he proceeded to remark:--"The ways used
here and elsewhere by the vine-grower are two--namely, by cuttings,
and rooted vines--but they do not always agree which of the two is the
better. There are many who say that, for the new plantation, rooted
vines must be preferred; others maintain that it is better to plant by
cuttings, because they grow more nourishing and give the vine a longer
life. Both these methods are good and to be recommended; but, in a
general way, I would advise you to stick to the cuttings, and that not
only because by planting them you will have a sensible economy, but
also because if you plant the cuttings in the vineyard you will never
have to more them. If you use rooted vines, it is impossible,
notwithstanding all your care and attention, for you to carry them from
the nursery to the vineyard without hurting their roots, which are very
delicate.

" But if the ground which you intend to plant with vines were loose and
arid, then I would never hesitate to advise you to always use in that
case rooted vines, because the cuttings without roots would not absorb
the rainy water which in such kind of soil runs away in the same time
it takes to fall. This is the reason why, in such a soil, the cuttings
seldom strike.

"On the selection of the cuttings depends the future of the
vineyard, but of this the vine-growers are not sufficiently persuaded,
because they do not pay all the attention required for this delicate
operation. In fact, when in the vineyards in order to cut the cuttings,
they take the thin and thicks--those growths on the new wood and on
the old--without making any distinction, and without knowing if the
old vine gives fruit or not. Many also, without other care, leave their
cuttings in the vineyard for months exposed to the air, sun, and rain;
not thinking that the very porous wood gets dry very quickly, and
becomes weak near the buds. Others, again, buy their cuttings without
knowing to what variety of vine they belong, and how they were
preserved. It is not surprising, therefore, that these negligent
vine-growers, after having incurred great expense in preparing the soil
and planting the vineyard, besides having their vineyard planted with so
many varieties, are compelled to pull up a great number of cuttings
that have not struck, or, having struck, do not carry fruit."


THE GROWING OF THE GRAPE--THE HEIGHT OF THE VINE ABOVE THE GROUND.


The young vine takes about four years to reach its fruit-bearing stage.
During this time the plant requires to be properly trained so as to
obtain the best results from the growing grape. Now, although there are
many different systems of rearing vines, yet in the main they consist
of an upright stem or trunk, and an upper part or crown--the latter
varying considerably in shape. Thus we have the "gooseberry-bush"
style, which is employed for those vines requiring short pruning. Then
there is the "trellising" style, for the long-pruned varieties, in
which the vine is trained to a great distance along a wire. Indeed,
these two methods may be taken to represent the two main styles
of training the vine; although the different modifications used in
various countries are almost endless.

There is, however, one important point which requires attention, no
matter what system is adopted, and it is the height of the vine above
the ground. The nearer a vine is to the ground, the more radiated light
and heat it receives, and as a consequence its resulting nine is
stronger. In vines so near the ground, also, the alkaline dust arising
from the soil neutralises the natural acid of the fruit, and
prejudicially affects the fermentation of the wine.

As a matter of fact the earthy taste--GOUT DE TERROIR--which is
sometimes present in wine, is believed to be caused by a certain amount
of soil being present on the grapes during fermentation. This must be
looked to, especially in the warmer districts, where by giving the wine
a greater distance above the ground, a lighter, more delicate, and
better wine, quite free from the foregoing demerit, is produced.

The testimony of experts throughout Australia is unanimously in favour
of raising the vine sufficiently above the ground, so as to keep the
grapes well off the soil, and also to provide for the free circulation
of air beneath. It is true that in some parts of the Continent the
practice for ages has been to keep the vines well down against the
earth. But this is done to secure the advantages of the radiated heat,
and enable the grapes to ripen. In Australia, however, even in the
elevated districts, the sun is usually warm enough to ripen the grapes
without this being necessary.


THE GROWING OF THE GRAPE--ON PRUNING.


Before leaving these references to the growing of the grape I purpose
making a few remarks upon pruning, a subject which is as interesting as
it is important. The objects of pruning are manifold. By it the
cultivation of the wine is facilitated; the best results are obtained
from each variety of grape; the yield is increased; the product is more
uniform in character; and the quality of the wine is vastly improved.
But a great deal of the work of pruning is so entirely technical that
it would utterly fail to possess any attraction for the general reader.
Consequently I shall attempt no more than to briefly refer to those
particular matters which are of Australian concern.

Now, it is laid down as a rule for pruning that some vines should be
pruned short, while others require long pruning; that is to say, one
variety of wine requires to be repressed, as it were, and in another
the branches have to be kept long to produce a superior quality of
wine. The explanation is that while the sap is on its way through the
roots, the stem, the branches, and the shoots of the vine, for the
production of fruit, it is distilled out, so to speak, during its
passage from the earth to the fruit. As Mr. George Sutherland prettily
puts it, the grape is, in fact, the crowning product of the whole
plant. In this way, the farther the sap has to travel through the whole
vine on its way to the growing fruit, the better will the resulting
wine be.

To a certain extent this is true of all vines, but more especially so
in the case of Shiraz and some of the Pinots. In various districts of
France, in order to bring the grape to perfection, the vine-growers
will train out their main branches along trellises to a length of 50
and even 60 feet, so as to give the sap the longest possible distance
to travel; and, further, for the purpose of concentrating into the
fruit the whole result of the wine, all the buds and little shoots,
which would distract therefrom, are carefully taken away. This gives to
the vine a very curious look, but it serves well to illustrate how
greatly wines differ as to whether they require short or long pruning.
It also helps to a better understanding of the two main styles of
training the vine already mentioned, namely, the "gooseberry bush" and
the "trellising."

The fact that this elaboration of the sap in long-pruned vines requires
a long distance to intervene between the roots and the fruit itself, is
one of considerable importance. It is necessary to remember, however,
that cultivation of this kind requires additional labour. Moreover, one
of the principal reasons why the short-pruned vine has become such a
favourite in Australia is that it is a labour-saving vine, and
therefore its adoption is almost a necessity. But, as Mr. Sutherland
remarks, "there is no doubt that Australia can never hope to produce in
any quantity the finest qualities of wine until the vignerons attend
more to those practices which depend essentially upon the fundamental
fact that the sap flows with different habits through different
varieties of vines; and, therefore, that some vines require short
pruning, while it is even more important to remember that others will
only yield satisfactorily under a system of long pruning."

In a paper on viticulture, at Mildura, which was drawn up for the Royal
Commission on Vegetable Products in 1890, Mr. Francois de Castella, a
former expert to the Board of Viticulture, Victoria, has condensed so
much knowledge within a small compass that I have quoted the following:--

"Most of the settlers I met told me that they intended to prune their
vines short. Now, in my opinion, they could not make a greater mistake
--for wine-growing, at least; as for raisin-growing I have never taken
any interest in the subject, and, having no experience, do not wish to
express an opinion on it. I must say that all the settlers I had
occasion to speak to were raisin-growers, but I should warn any future
wine-grower at Mildura, who may chance to read these few notes, to
beware of short pruning.

"Most of our vineyard labourers come from the cold parts of Europe,
such as Switzerland, where grapes ripen with difficulty under ordinary
circumstances, and where the vine does not take any considerable
development. There, short pruning has to be resorted to in order to
make a drinkable wine. When these men arrive in Australia they bring
all their old habits and prejudices with them, and tell the
inexperienced vineyard proprietor that long pruning weakens the vine.
The proprietor, thinking that they know more about the subject than he
does, allows them to do as they like, and they set to work to cut the
vine down to such an extent that, unable to take advantage of the
genial climate to which it has been transplanted, it gives only one-eighth
or one-tenth of the quantity of grapes it could be made to bear
with intelligent pruning, besides being much weakened; whereas
long-pruning strengthens a vine if the climate be favourable to its
development.

"Another disadvantage of short pruning in warm climates is the well-known
fact that the less grapes you have on the vine, the more glucose
the must will contain; therefore, instead of making much more per acre
of a drinkable wine, which they easily could do, they content
themselves with a much smaller quantity per acre of a wine which
ferments so badly that alcohol has to be added to prevent the
production of lactic acid, resulting from the excessive temperature
reached during fermentation favouring the development of this
particular germ.

"The resulting wine, a curious mixture of alcohol, sugar, lactic acid,
and water, is most unpalatable, sour, uninviting, and unwholesome.
besides ruining the name of Australian wine when sold as such.

"I may here warn vine-growers against the advice given to them by some
would-be authorities, who tell them they can make a light wine by
picking grapes before they are ripe. This is absurd. The unripe grape
contains a certain percentage of vegetable acids, such as tartaric,
malic, &c., &c. some of which are themselves converted into glucose
during the process of ripening, whilst others are eliminated after
helping to transform the starch of the vegetable tissues into glucose.
It stands to reason that if the fruit be picked before complete
maturity, these acids, which are not capable of fermenting, will be
found unchanged in the wine produced, thereby rendering it acid and
undrinkable. It is, of course, necessary, in warm climates, to pick the
grapes before they get over-ripe or shrivel up; but it would be just as
foolish to rush to the other extreme, and pick the fruit too soon.

"If, instead of blindly following the mode of culture which has been
adopted in a cold climate, the vine-grower would listen to the dictates
of reason, and were to try a few inexpensive experiments, he
would soon find out his mistake, and confer a boon on himself as well
as on his neighbour, not to speak of the consumers of his wine.

"Even in the cooler districts of Victoria, such as the Yarra Valley, I
do not know of any variety of vine which is weakened by long pruning,
even in a series of years; while certain varieties are so influenced by
short pruning as to bear no fruit at all. If this be the case on the
Yarra, how much more must it be so on the Murray?"

Mr. de Castella then referred to some other matters connected with the
practices followed at Mildura, and concluded with these encouraging
words:--

"I contend that no other culture will give such magnificent returns, do
so much good to a country, or have greater attractions for the happy
proprietor of the vineyard, as there is no branch of agriculture which
presents such a vast field for experimental research, or which is so
extensively benefited by the practical application of scientific laws
and principles, as viticulture."